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Company Description
Artificial Intelligence Industry In China
The expert system market in the People’s Republic of China is a quickly establishing multi-billion dollar industry. The roots of China’s AI advancement started in the late 1970s following Deng Xiaoping’s economic reforms highlighting science and technology as the nation’s main productive force.
The preliminary stages of China’s AI advancement were sluggish and came across significant challenges due to absence of resources and talent. At the beginning China lagged a lot of Western countries in regards to AI advancement. A bulk of the research was led by scientists who had gotten higher education abroad. [1]
Since 2006, the federal government of the People’s Republic of China has steadily established a national agenda for expert system advancement and emerged as one of the leading nations in synthetic intelligence research study and advancement. [2] In 2016, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) released its thirteenth five-year strategy in which it aimed to end up being an international AI leader by 2030. [3]
The State Council has a list of “nationwide AI groups” including fifteen China-based business, including Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, and iFlytek. [citation required] Each business must lead the advancement of a designated specialized AI sector in China, such as facial acknowledgment, software/hardware, and speech acknowledgment. China’s quick AI advancement has considerably impacted Chinese society in many locations, including the socio-economic, military, and political spheres. Agriculture, transport, accommodation and food services, and production are the leading markets that would be the most impacted by further AI release.
The private sector, university labs, and the military are working collaboratively in many elements as there are couple of current existing borders. [4] In 2021, China published the Data Security Law of individuals’s Republic of China, its very first national law attending to AI-related ethical concerns. In October 2022, the United States federal government announced a series of export controls and trade constraints planned to restrict China’s access to sophisticated computer system chips for AI applications. [5] [6]
Concerns have been raised about the effects of the Chinese federal government’s censorship program on the advancement of generative expert system and talent acquisition with state of the nation’s demographics. [7] [8]
History
The research and advancement of expert system in China started in the 1980s, with the statement by Deng Xiaoping of the importance of science and innovation for China’s economic development. [3]
Late 1970s to early 2010s
Artificial intelligence research and development did not start up until the late 1970s after Deng Xiaoping’s economic reforms. [3] While there was an absence of AI-related research in between the 1950s and 1960s, some scholars think this is because of the influence of cybernetics from the Soviet Union despite the Sino-Soviet split throughout the late 1950s and early 1960s. [9] In the 1980s, a group of Chinese scientists released AI research study led by Qian Xuesen and Wu Wenjun. [9] However, throughout the time, China’s society still had an usually conservative view towards AI. [9] Early AI development in China was hard so China’s federal government approached these challenges by sending out Chinese scholars overseas to study AI and more offering government funds for research jobs. The Chinese Association for Artificial Intelligence (CAAI) was founded in September 1981 and was licensed by the Ministry of Civil Affairs. [10] The very first chairman of the executive committee was Qin Yuanxun, who received a PhD in philosophy from Harvard University. [citation required] In 1987, China’s first research publication on artificial intelligence was published by Tsinghua University. Beginning in 1993, wise automation and intelligence have actually been part of China’s nationwide innovation strategy. [9]
Since the 2000s, the Chinese government has actually even more broadened its research and advancement funds for AI and the variety of government-sponsored research study projects has drastically increased. [3] In 2006, China announced a policy priority for the development of expert system, which was consisted of in the National Medium and Long Term Plan for the Development of Science and Technology (2006-2020), launched by the State Council. [2] In the very same year, expert system was also pointed out in the l lth five-year strategy. [11]
In 2011, the Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence (AAAI) developed a branch in Beijing, China. [12] At very same year, the Wu Wenjun Artificial Intelligence Science and Technology Award was established in honor of Chinese mathematician Wu Wenjun, and it ended up being the greatest award for Chinese achievements in the field of expert system. The first award ceremony was held on May 14, 2012. [13] In 2013, the International Joint Conferences on Artificial Intelligence (IJCAI) was held in Beijing, marking the very first time the conference was kept in China. This event accompanied the Chinese government’s statement of the “Chinese Intelligence Year,” a considerable milestone in China’s advancement of synthetic intelligence. [12]
Late 2010s to early 2020s
The State Council of China provided “A Next Generation Artificial Intelligence Development Plan” (State Council Document [2017] No. 35) on 20 July 2017. In the file, the CCP Central Committee and the State Council urged governing bodies in China to promote the advancement of artificial intelligence. Specifically, the plan described AI as a tactical technology that has ended up being a “focus of worldwide competitors”. [14]:2 The document prompted considerable financial investment in a number of tactical locations connected to AI and required close cooperation in between the state and personal sectors. On the celebration of CCP basic secretary Xi Jinping’s speech at the first plenary meeting of the Central Military-Civil Fusion Development Committee (CMCFDC), scholars from the National Defense University wrote in the PLA Daily that the “transferability of social resources” between financial and military ends is an important part to being a great power. [15] During the Two Sessions 2017,”expert system plus” was proposed to be raised to a tactical level. [16] The very same year saw the development of multiple application-level uses in the medical field according to reports. [17] Furthermore, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) established their AI processor chip research study lab in Nanjing, and presented their first AI specialization chip, Cambrian. [citation required]
In 2018, Xinhua News Agency, in partnership with Tencent’s subsidiary Sogou, launched its first artificial intelligence-generated news anchor. [18] [19] [20]
In 2018, the State Council allocated $2.1 billion for an AI commercial park in Mentougou district. [21] In order to attain this the State Council specified the need for huge skill acquisition, theoretical and practical advancements, in addition to public and private investments. [14] Some of the mentioned motivations that the State Council gave for pursuing its AI technique consist of the potential of expert system for commercial transformation, better social governance and preserving social stability. [14] As of completion of 2020, Shanghai’s Pudong District had 600 AI companies across fundamental, technical, and application layers, with associated industries valued at around 91 billion yuan. [22]
In 2019, the application of synthetic intelligence expanded to numerous fields such as quantum physics, location, and medical research. With the development of large language models (LLMs), at the beginning of 2020, Chinese researchers began developing their own LLMs. One such example is the multimodal large design called ‘Zidongtaichu.’ [23]
The Beijing Academy of Artificial Intelligence launched China’s very first large scale pre-trained language model in 2022. [24] [25]:283
In November 2022, the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC), Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, and the Ministry of Public Security collectively released the regulations concerning deepfakes, which ended up being reliable in January 2023. [26]
In July 2023, Huawei released its variation 3.0 of its Pangu LLM. [27]
In July 2023, China released its Interim Measures for the Administration of Generative Artificial Intelligence Services. [28]:96 A draft proposal on basic generative AI services security requirements, consisting of specifications for information collection and design training was released in October 2023. [28]:96
Also in October 2023, the Chinese government released its Global AI Governance Initiative, which frames its AI policy as part of a Neighborhood of Common Destiny and aims to construct AI policy dialogue with developing nations. [29] [28]:93 The Initiative has actually revealed issue over AI security dangers, consisting of abuse of data or making use of AI by terrorists. [28]:93
In 2024, Spamouflage, an online disinformation and propaganda campaign of the Ministry of Public Security, started utilizing news anchors produced with generative expert system to provide fake news clips. [18]
In March 2024, Premier Li Qiang introduced the AI+ Initiative, which intends to integrate AI into China’s real economy. [28]:95
In May 2024, the Cyberspace Administration of China revealed that it presented a large language design trained on Xi Jinping Thought. [30]
According to the 2024 report from the International Data Corporation (IDC), Baidu AI Cloud holds China’s largest LLM market share with 19.9 percent and US$ 49 million in earnings over the last year. This was followed by SenseTime, with 16 percent market share, and by Zhipu AI, as the 3rd largest. The fourth and 5th largest were Baichuan and the Hong-Kong listed AI company 4Paradigm respectively. [31] Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax were applauded by investors as China’s brand-new “AI Tigers”. [32] In April 2024, 117 generative AI designs had been approved by the Chinese government. [33]
Since 2024, lots of Chinese innovation companies such as Zhipu AI and Bytedance have launched AI video-generation tools to rival OpenAI’s Sora. [34]
Chronology of significant AI-related policies
Ministry of Science and Technology; Ministry of Industry and Information Technology; the Central Leading Group for Cyberspace Affairs
National Development and Reform Commission; Ministry of Science and Technology Ministry of Industry and Information Technology
Government goals
According to a February 2019 publication by the Center for a New American Security, CCP general secretary Xi Jinping – thinks that being at the forefront of AI innovation will be important to the future of international military and financial power competitors. [35] By 2025, the State Council intends for China to make fundamental contributions to basic AI theory and to strengthen its location as a global leader in AI research. Further, the State Council intends for AI to end up being “the primary driving force for China’s industrial upgrading and financial change” by this time. [14] By 2030, the State Council intends to have China be the global leader in the advancement of synthetic intelligence theory and technology. The State Council declares that China will have developed a “mature new-generation AI theory and innovation system.” [14]
According to academics Karen M. Sutter and Zachary Arnold, the Chinese government “seeks to meld state planning and control while some functional versatility for firms. In this context, China’s AI firms are hybrid gamers. The state guides their activity, funds, and guards them from foreign competition through domestic market protections, producing uneven benefits as they broaden offshore.” [36]
The CCP’s fourteenth five-year plan declared AI as a top research study top priority and ranks AI first among “frontier markets” that the Chinese federal government aims to concentrate on through 2035. [3] The AI market is a strategic sector typically by China’s federal government assistance funds. [37]:167
Research and advancement
Chinese public AI financing generally focused on advanced and applied research. [38] The federal government funding likewise supported several AI R&D in the private sector through endeavor capitals that are backed by the state. [38] Much analytic firm research study showed that, while China is massively purchasing all aspects of AI advancement, facial acknowledgment, biotechnology, quantum computing, medical intelligence, and autonomous vehicles are AI sectors with the most attention and financing. [39]
According to national assistance on establishing China’s state-of-the-art industrial development zones by the Ministry of Science and Technology, there are fourteen cities and one county selected as an experimental development zone. [40] Zhejiang and Guangdong provinces have the most AI innovation in speculative locations. However, the focus of AI R&D varied depending on cities and regional commercial advancement and environment. For example, Suzhou, a city with a longstanding strong manufacturing industry, heavily concentrates on automation and AI facilities while Wuhan focuses more on AI applications and the education sector. [40] In connection with universities, tech companies, and national ministries, Shenzhen and Hangzhou each co-founded generative AI labs. [25]:282
In 2016 and 2017, Chinese teams won the top reward at the Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge, an international competitors for computer system vision systems. [41] Much of these systems are now being incorporated into China’s domestic security network. [42]
Interdisciplinary cooperations play an essential function in China’s AI R&D, including academic-corporate cooperation, public-private collaborations, and worldwide cooperations and projects with corporate-government collaborations are the most typical. [1] China ranked in the top 3 worldwide following the United States and the European Union for the total variety of peer-reviewed AI publications that are produced under a corporate-academic collaboration between 2015 and 2019. [43] Besides, according to an AI index report, China went beyond the U.S. in 2020 in the overall variety of international AI-related journal citations. [43] In regards to AI-related R&D, China-based peer-reviewed AI documents are primarily sponsored by the government. In May 2021, China’s Beijing Academy of Artificial Intelligence launched the world’s biggest pre-trained language design (WuDao). [44]
As of 2023, 47% of the world’s leading AI scientists had completed their undergraduate research studies in China. [28]:101
According to scholastic Angela Huyue Zhang, publishing in 2024, while the Chinese federal government has been proactive in managing AI services and enforcing commitments on AI business, the overall technique to its guideline is loose and shows a pro-growth policy favorable to China’s AI industry. [28]:96 In July 2024, the government opened its very first algorithm registration center in Beijing. [45]
Population
China’s large population creates an enormous amount of accessible information for companies and scientists, which offers an essential advantage in the race of huge information. As of 2024 [upgrade], China has the world’s biggest variety of web users, generating big amounts of data for artificial intelligence and AI applications. [46]:18
Facial recognition
Facial acknowledgment is among the most widely employed AI applications in China. Collecting these large quantities of information from its locals helps more train and expand AI abilities. China’s market is not just conducive and important for corporations to additional AI R&D however likewise offers incredible economic possible attracting both global and domestic firms to join the AI market. The extreme development of the details and interaction technology (ICT) industry and AI chipsets recently are 2 examples of this. [47] China has become the world’s biggest exporter of facial acknowledgment technology, according to a January 2023 Wired report. [48]
Censorship and content controls
In April 2023, [49] the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC) released draft measures specifying that tech business will be obligated to guarantee AI-generated material promotes the ideology of the CCP consisting of Core Socialist Values, prevents discrimination, respects copyright rights, and safeguards user data. [50] [25]:278 Under these draft steps, companies bear legal duty for training information and content created through their platforms. [25]:278 In October 2023, the Chinese government mandated that generative synthetic intelligence-produced content might not “prompt subversion of state power or the toppling of the socialist system.” [51] Before launching a big language design to the public, companies should seek approval from the CAC to certify that the design refuses to address certain questions associating with political ideology and criticism of the CCP. [8] [52] Questions connected to politically delicate topics such as the 1989 Tiananmen Square demonstrations and massacre or comparisons between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh should be declined. [52]
In 2023, in-country gain access to was obstructed to Hugging Face, a company that maintains libraries including training data sets commonly utilized for big language models. [8] A subsidiary of individuals’s Daily, the main newspaper of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, provides regional business with training data that CCP leaders consider permissible. [8] In 2024, the People’s Daily launched a LLM-based tool called Easy Write. [53]
Microsoft has actually alerted that the Chinese federal government uses generative artificial intelligence to interfere in foreign elections by spreading out disinformation and provoking discussions on dissentious political concerns. [54] [55] [56]
The Chinese synthetic intelligence design DeepSeek has actually been reported to refuse to respond to questions relating to things about the 1989 Tiananmen Square demonstrations and massacre, persecution of Uyghurs, contrasts between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh or human rights in China. [57] [58] [59]
Impact
Economic effect
Most firms [who?] hold optimistic views about AI‘s economic impact on China’s long-lasting financial growth. In the past, conventional markets in China have actually battled with the boost in labor expenses due to the growing aging population in China and the low birth rate. With the implementation of AI, functional expenses are expected to lower while a boost in efficiency produces earnings growth. [60] Some highlight the importance of a clear policy and governmental support in order to overcome adoption barriers consisting of expenses and lack of properly trained technical skills and AI awareness. [61] However, there are concerns about China’s deepening earnings inequality and the ever-expanding imbalanced labor market in China. Low- and medium-income employees might be the most negatively impacted by China’s AI development due to the fact that of increasing needs for workers with sophisticated abilities. [61] Furthermore, China’s financial development may be disproportionately divided as a bulk of AI-related commercial advancement is focused in coastal regions instead of inland. [61]
A prominent decision by the Beijing Internet Court has ruled that AI-generated material is entitled to copyright defense. [28]:98
Military impact
China seeks to construct a “world-class” military by “intelligentization” with a particular concentrate on using unmanned weapons and synthetic intelligence. [62] [63] It is investigating various kinds of air, land, sea, and undersea autonomous cars. In the spring of 2017, a civilian Chinese university with ties to the military showed an AI-enabled swarm of 1,000 unoccupied aerial automobiles at an airshow. A media report launched afterwards showed a computer system simulation of a comparable swarm development finding and ruining a rocket launcher. [4]:23 Open-source publications showed that China is also establishing a suite of AI tools for cyber operations. [64] [4]:27 Chinese advancement of military AI is largely influenced by China’s observation of U.S. prepare for defense innovation and worries of an expanding “generational gap” in contrast to the U.S. military. Similar to U.S. military principles, China aims to utilize AI for exploiting big chests of intelligence, producing a typical operating picture, and speeding up battleground decision-making. [64] [4]:12 -14 The Chinese Multi-Domain Precision Warfare (MDPW) is considered China’s reaction to the U.S. Joint All-Domain Command and Control (JADC2) method, which seeks to integrate sensors and weapons with AI and an energetic network. [65] [66]
Twelve categories of military applications of AI have actually been recognized: UAVs, USVs, UUVs, UGVs, intelligent munitions, smart satellites, ISR (Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance) software, automated cyber defense software application, automated cyberattack software, choice support, software application, automated missile launch software, and cognitive electronic warfare software application. [67]
China’s management of its AI environment contrasts with that of the United States. [4]:6 In basic, couple of limits exist between Chinese commercial companies, university research laboratories, the military, and the main government. As an outcome, the Chinese government has a direct means of assisting AI advancement concerns and accessing technology that was seemingly established for civilian functions. To further reinforce these ties the Chinese government created a Military-Civil Fusion Development Commission which is planned to speed the transfer of AI innovation from commercial business and research study organizations to the military in January 2017. [2] [4]:19 In addition, the Chinese federal government is leveraging both lower barriers to information collection and lower expenses of information identifying to develop the large databases on which AI systems train. [68] According to one price quote, China is on track to have 20% of the world’s share of information by 2020, with the potential to have more than 30% by 2030. [64] [4]:12
China’s centrally directed effort is purchasing the U.S. AI market, in business dealing with militarily pertinent AI applications, potentially approving it legal access to U.S. technology and copyright. [69] Chinese equity capital investment in U.S. AI business between 2010 and 2017 totaled an approximated $1.3 billion. [70] [64] In September 2022, the U.S. Biden administration provided an executive order to avoid foreign financial investments, “especially those from competitor or adversarial countries,” from buying U.S. technology companies, due to U.S. national security concerns. [71] [72] The order covers fields of U.S. innovations in which Chinese federal government has been investing, including “microelectronics, expert system, biotechnology and biomanufacturing, quantum computing, [and] advanced tidy energy.” [71] [72]
In 2024, researchers from the People’s Liberation Army Academy of Military Sciences were reported to have established a military tool utilizing Llama, which Meta Platforms said was unauthorized due to its design use restriction for military purposes. [73] [74]
Academia
Although in 2004, Peking University introduced the first academic course on AI which led other Chinese universities to adopt AI as a discipline, specifically since China deals with obstacles in recruiting and maintaining AI engineers and scientists. [21] Over half of the data scientists in the United States have actually been working in the field for over 10 years, while approximately the exact same percentage of information researchers in China have less than 5 years of experience. As of 2017, less than 30 Chinese Universities produce AI-focused professionals and research study items. [61]:8 Although China went beyond the United States in the variety of research papers produced from 2011 to 2015, the quality of its published documents, as evaluated by peer citations, ranked 34th internationally. [75] China especially desire to attend to military applications and so the Beijing Institute of Technology, among China’s premier institutes for weapons research study, just recently established the first kids’s academic program in military AI in the world. [76]
In 2019, 34% of Chinese trainees studying in the AI field stayed in China for work. [77] According to a database maintained by an American thinktank, the portion increased to 58% in 2022. [77]
Ethical concerns
For the previous years, there are conversations about AI safety and ethical issues in both personal and public sectors. In 2021, China’s Ministry of Science and Technology released the very first nationwide ethical standard, ‘the New Generation of Expert System Ethics Code’ on the subject of AI with specific emphasis on user defense, information privacy, and security. [78] This document acknowledges the power of AI and fast technology adaptation by the huge corporations for user engagements. The South China Morning Post reported that human beings will remain completely decision-making power and rights to opt-in/-out. [78] Before this, the Beijing Academy of Artificial Intelligence released the Beijing AI concepts calling for important needs in long-term research and preparation of AI ethical principles. [79]
Data security has been the most typical topic in AI ethical discussion worldwide, and numerous national federal governments have actually developed legislation addressing data privacy and security. The Cybersecurity Law of the People’s Republic of China was enacted in 2017 aiming to resolve new difficulties raised by AI development. [80] [initial research study?] In 2021, China’s brand-new Data Security Law (DSL) was passed by the PRC congress, setting up a regulative framework categorizing all sort of information collection and storage in China. [81] This implies all tech companies in China are required to classify their information into categories listed in Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) and follow particular standards on how to govern and handle data transfers to other celebrations. [81]
Judicial system
In 2019, the city of Hangzhou developed a pilot program artificial intelligence-based Internet Court to adjudicate disagreements related to ecommerce and internet-related intellectual home claims. [82]:124 Parties appear before the court via videoconference and AI examines the proof provided and applies relevant legal standards. [82]:124
Because some controversial cases that drew public criticism for their low penalties have been withdrawn from China Judgments Online, there are concerns about whether AI based upon fragmented judicial data can reach objective decisions. [83] Zhang Linghan, teacher of law at the China University of Political Science and Law, writes that AI-technology business may wear down judicial power. [84] Some scholars argued that “increasing celebration leadership, political oversight, and reducing the discretionary space of judges are deliberate goals of SCR [clever court reform]” [85]
Leading business
Leading AI-centric business and start-ups consist of Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, 4Paradigm and Yitu Technology. [86] Chinese AI companies iFlytek, SenseTime, Cloudwalk and DJI have actually received attention for facial acknowledgment, sound acknowledgment and drone technologies. [87]
China’s government takes a market-oriented method to AI, and has sought to encourage private tech companies in developing AI. [25]:281 In 2018, it designated Baidu, Alibaba, iFlytek, Tencent, and SenseTime as “AI champs”. [25]:281
In 2023, Tencent debuted its big language design Hunyuan for enterprise use on Tencent Cloud. [88]
New leading AI startups consist of Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax which were applauded by financiers as China’s brand-new “AI Tigers” in 2024. [32] 01. AI has actually also been touted as a leading startup. [89]
Assessment
Academic Jinghan Zeng argued the Chinese federal government’s commitment to international AI leadership and technological competition was driven by its previous underperformance in development which was seen by the CCP as a part of the century of humiliation. [90] According to Zeng, there are traditionally embedded causes of China’s anxiety towards protecting a global technological supremacy – China missed out on both commercial transformations, the one starting in Britain in the mid-18th century, and the one that came from in America in the late-19th century. [90] Therefore, China’s government desires to benefit from the technological transformation in today’s world led by digital innovation including AI to resume China’s “rightful” location and to pursue the national rejuvenation proposed by Xi Jinping. [90]
An article released by the Center for a New American Security concluded that “Chinese government officials showed remarkably eager understanding of the issues surrounding AI and international security. This includes knowledge of the U.S. AI policy discussions,” and advised that “the U.S. policymaking community to likewise prioritize cultivating know-how and understanding of AI advancements in China” and “financing, focus, and a determination among U.S. policymakers to drive massive required modification.” [35] An article in the MIT Technology Review similarly concluded: “China might have unequaled resources and huge untapped potential, however the West has world-leading proficiency and a strong research culture. Rather than stress over China’s development, it would be wise for Western nations to focus on their existing strengths, investing greatly in research study and education. ” [91]
The Chinese federal government’s censorship routine has stunted the development of generative expert system [7] [8]
In a 2021 text, the Research Centre for a Holistic Approach to National Security at the China Institutes of Contemporary International Relations composed that the advancement of AI creates challenges for holistic national security, including the threats that AI will increase social stress or have destabilizing effects on global relations. [28]:49
Writing from a Chinese Marxist view, academics consisting of Gao Qiqi and Pan Enrong contend that capitalist application of AI will lead to higher oppression of employees and more severe social issues. [28]:90 Gao points out how the advancement of AI has increased the power of platform companies like Meta, Twitter, and Alphabet, resulting in higher capital accumulation and political power in less financial actors. [28]:90 According to Gao, the state must be the main responsible actor in the location of generative AI (developing new material like music or video). [28]:92 Gao composes that military use of AI dangers escalating military competitors between nations which the effect of AI in military matters will not be limited to one country but will have spillover effects. [28]:91
Dialogues in between Chinese and Western AI professionals about the existential danger from artificial intelligence have taken location. [92]
Public polling
The Chinese public is usually optimistic concerning AI. [25]:283 [28]:101 A 2021 study conducted across 28 countries discovered that 78% of the Chinese public thinks the advantages of AI exceed the dangers, the greatest of any nation in the research study. [25]:283 In 2024, a study of elite Chinese university students discovered that 80% concurred or highly concurred that AI will do more excellent than damage for society, and 31% believed it needs to be managed by the federal government. [93]
Human rights
The widely utilized AI facial recognition has raised issues. [94] According to The New York City Times, release of AI facial acknowledgment technology in the Xinjiang region to find Uyghurs is “the very first recognized example of a government purposefully utilizing expert system for racial profiling,” [95] which is said to be “among the most striking examples of digital authoritarianism.” [96] Researchers have actually found that in China, areas experiencing higher rates of unrest are associated with increased state acquisition of AI facial recognition technology, especially by local community police departments. [97] [98]
Expert system.
Expert system arms race
China Brain Project
Fifth generation computer system
List of synthetic intelligence business
Regulation of expert system
References
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Further reading
Hannas, William C.; Chang, Huey-Meei, eds. (29 July 2022). Chinese Power and Expert System: Perspectives and Challenges (1st ed.). London: Routledge.